Yemen: A Deep Dive into Its Rich History, Culture, and Current Affairs

Introduction

Yemen, a country located at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, has a rich history and a unique cultural heritage that makes it a significant region in the Middle East. Understanding Yemen is crucial for comprehending the complexities of the region, as the country plays a key role in the geopolitics of the Middle East and has been a focal point for regional and international powers.

Yemen is a nation with deep historical roots, dating back to ancient civilizations like the Sabaeans and Himyarites. Over the centuries, it has been a crossroads for trade and a melting pot of various cultures. However, in recent decades, Yemen has been beset by internal conflicts, political instability, and humanitarian crises, making it one of the most challenging places in the world today.

Understanding Yemen is essential not only for geopolitical reasons but also for humanitarian ones. The ongoing conflict in Yemen has led to one of the world’s most severe humanitarian crises, with millions of people in need of assistance. Additionally, Yemen’s location near major shipping routes, its natural resources, and its cultural significance make it a country that demands global attention and understanding.

Geography of Yemen

Yemen is geographically diverse, with landscapes ranging from arid deserts to fertile plains and rugged mountains. This diversity has shaped the country’s history, culture, and economy.

Location and Borders

Yemen is situated in the southwestern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, Oman to the east, the Arabian Sea to the south, and the Red Sea to the west. Its strategic location near the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, a crucial maritime chokepoint, gives it significant geopolitical importance.

Major Cities and Regions

The capital city of Yemen is Sana’a, a historic city known for its unique architecture and cultural heritage. Other major cities include Aden, a vital port city with historical ties to trade and commerce, and Taiz, an important cultural and economic center. The country is divided into several regions, each with its distinct cultural and geographic characteristics, including the mountainous highlands, the coastal plains, and the eastern desert regions.

Climate and Natural Resources

Yemen’s climate varies significantly depending on the region. The coastal areas are generally hot and humid, while the highlands experience a more temperate climate. The country receives limited rainfall, making water a precious resource. Yemen is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and gas, although these resources have been underutilized due to ongoing conflicts and lack of infrastructure. The country’s agricultural sector also plays a vital role, with the cultivation of crops like coffee, qat, and fruits being significant for the local economy.

Historical Background

Yemen’s history is one of the oldest in the world, with a heritage that reflects its position as a crossroads of civilizations. From ancient kingdoms to its role in the Islamic world, Yemen’s historical trajectory has been deeply influential in shaping the cultural and political landscapes of the Arabian Peninsula.

Ancient History

Yemen’s ancient history is marked by the presence of several powerful kingdoms, such as the Sabaean Kingdom, which thrived from around 1200 BCE to 275 CE. The Sabaeans are often associated with the legendary Queen of Sheba, and their kingdom was a hub of trade, particularly in frankincense and myrrh. Other significant ancient kingdoms include the Himyarites and the Ma’in, both of which contributed to Yemen’s rich cultural and architectural heritage. The ancient city of Marib, with its impressive dam, is a testament to the advanced engineering and prosperity of these early civilizations.

Islamic Era

With the advent of Islam in the 7th century, Yemen quickly became an integral part of the Islamic world. The country embraced Islam during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad, and it became a center for Islamic learning and culture. Over the centuries, Yemen was ruled by various Islamic dynasties, including the Zaydi Imams, who established a theocratic state that lasted until the 20th century. The Islamic era also saw the flourishing of Yemeni architecture, with the construction of grand mosques and fortifications that still stand today.

Modern History

Yemen’s modern history has been shaped by colonialism, independence movements, and internal conflicts. In the 19th century, the British established a protectorate in the southern port city of Aden, while the northern part of the country remained under Ottoman control. Following World War II, Yemen saw the rise of nationalist movements that eventually led to the creation of two separate states: the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) and the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen). These two states were unified in 1990, but Yemen has since experienced ongoing political instability, including a civil war that has devastated the country in recent years.

Cultural Aspects

Yemen’s culture is a vibrant tapestry woven from its long history, diverse population, and deep-rooted traditions. The country’s cultural heritage is evident in its language, religion, clothing, and celebrations, which all play a vital role in the daily lives of Yemenis.

Language and Religion

The official language of Yemen is Arabic, which is spoken in various dialects across the country. Yemenis take pride in their language, which is closely tied to their Islamic identity. Islam is the predominant religion in Yemen, with the majority of the population adhering to Sunni Islam, while a significant minority practices Zaydi Shia Islam. The religious practices and beliefs in Yemen are deeply integrated into the social fabric, influencing everything from law to daily rituals.

Traditional Clothing

Traditional Yemeni clothing reflects the country’s cultural and regional diversity. Men often wear a thobe or jambia (a curved dagger) worn around the waist, symbolizing honor and social status. In some regions, men also wear a futah (a wraparound skirt) or a mawaz (a sarong). Women typically wear colorful, embroidered dresses with intricate patterns, although in some areas, more conservative attire like the abaya (a long black cloak) is common. The traditional attire varies across regions, reflecting Yemen’s rich cultural diversity.

Festivals and Celebrations

Yemenis celebrate a variety of religious and cultural festivals that reflect their Islamic faith and cultural heritage. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are the most significant religious holidays, marked by prayers, feasting, and charity. Mawlid al-Nabi, the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, is also widely celebrated with special prayers and gatherings. Yemeni weddings are grand celebrations filled with music, dance, and traditional customs, often lasting several days. Another notable celebration is the Day of Unity, which commemorates the unification of North and South Yemen on May 22, 1990. These festivals and celebrations are essential expressions of Yemen’s cultural identity and community spirit.

Economy

Yemen’s economy has traditionally been based on agriculture, fishing, and trade, but in recent decades, it has become increasingly dependent on oil and natural gas. However, ongoing conflict, political instability, and humanitarian crises have severely affected the country’s economic performance, leading to widespread poverty and unemployment.

Main Economic Activities

Yemen’s economy is primarily agricultural, with a significant portion of the population engaged in farming and livestock rearing. Trade, particularly in the country’s traditional markets (souqs), also plays a crucial role in the local economy. Additionally, small-scale manufacturing and services contribute to the economic landscape, although these sectors have been hampered by the ongoing conflict.

Agriculture and Fishing

Agriculture is a key economic activity in Yemen, with the country producing a variety of crops such as coffee, qat (a mild stimulant plant widely chewed in Yemen), fruits, vegetables, and cereals. Yemen is known for its unique coffee, particularly from the highlands around Mocha, which was historically an important port for coffee export. Livestock rearing, including goats, sheep, and cattle, is also common in rural areas. Fishing is another vital industry, particularly along the Red Sea and Arabian Sea coasts, where fish and seafood are important sources of income and nutrition for coastal communities.

Oil and Natural Gas

Oil and natural gas are critical to Yemen’s economy, providing the majority of the country’s export earnings and government revenue. Yemen began exporting oil in the 1980s, and although its reserves are modest compared to other Gulf countries, oil has been the backbone of the national economy. The discovery and export of natural gas in the early 21st century provided a new source of revenue. However, the ongoing conflict has disrupted production and export activities, significantly reducing the contribution of these sectors to the economy.

Political Landscape

Yemen’s political landscape has been marked by significant instability, especially in recent decades. The country has experienced multiple conflicts, including a civil war, that have deeply affected its governance and international relations.

Government Structure

Yemen is officially a republic with a multi-party system. The government is supposed to be led by a president, who is the head of state, and a prime minister, who is the head of government. The legislative power is vested in a bicameral parliament, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Shura Council. However, the ongoing conflict has led to a fragmented political structure, with different regions controlled by various factions, including the internationally recognized government, the Houthi movement, and other local and tribal groups.

Recent Political Developments

Yemen has been embroiled in a civil war since 2014, when the Houthi movement, an armed political faction from northern Yemen, seized control of the capital, Sana’a, and later expanded their control over other parts of the country. The conflict escalated in 2015 when a Saudi-led coalition intervened in support of the internationally recognized government. The war has resulted in a severe humanitarian crisis, with millions of people displaced and in need of assistance. Efforts to broker peace have been ongoing but have yet to result in a lasting resolution. The conflict has also led to the de facto division of the country, with different groups controlling different areas, further complicating governance and political stability.

International Relations

Yemen’s international relations are deeply influenced by its strategic location and the ongoing conflict. The country has historically had strong ties with neighboring countries, particularly Saudi Arabia, which has played a significant role in Yemeni politics. The conflict in Yemen has drawn in various international actors, including the United Nations, which has been involved in peace negotiations, and the United States, which has provided support to the Saudi-led coalition. The war has also heightened regional tensions, particularly between Saudi Arabia and Iran, which is accused of supporting the Houthi movement. Yemen’s international relations are currently dominated by efforts to resolve the conflict and address the humanitarian crisis, with the international community playing a crucial role in providing aid and seeking a political solution.

Society and Demographics

Yemen’s society is characterized by a diverse population, a rich cultural heritage, and complex social structures. However, the ongoing conflict has significantly impacted the social fabric, leading to widespread displacement, suffering, and a dire need for humanitarian assistance.

Population Statistics

As of recent estimates, Yemen has a population of approximately 30 million people. The population is predominantly rural, with a large portion of the population living in small villages and towns. The capital, Sana’a, along with other major cities like Aden and Taiz, are home to a significant portion of the population. Yemen’s population is relatively young, with a large percentage under the age of 25, which poses both challenges and opportunities for the country’s future.

Ethnic Groups

Yemen is ethnically diverse, though the majority of the population identifies as Arab. There are also smaller ethnic groups, including Afro-Arab populations, South Asians, and the Mahra people in the eastern part of the country. The Akhdam community, historically marginalized, also constitutes a distinct group within Yemeni society. Tribal affiliations play a significant role in Yemeni social structure, with many Yemenis identifying strongly with their tribal lineage, which influences social and political dynamics.

Education and Healthcare

Education in Yemen has suffered greatly due to the ongoing conflict. While education was previously accessible to most children, the war has led to the destruction of schools, displacement of families, and a significant drop in school attendance. Literacy rates vary, with a notable gender gap, as fewer girls receive formal education compared to boys.

Healthcare in Yemen is in a critical state. The conflict has devastated the healthcare infrastructure, leading to shortages of medical supplies, personnel, and facilities. Many hospitals and clinics have been damaged or destroyed, and access to healthcare is severely limited, especially in rural and conflict-affected areas. Yemen has also faced outbreaks of preventable diseases, such as cholera, exacerbated by poor sanitation and limited access to clean water.

Conflict and Humanitarian Crisis

The ongoing conflict in Yemen has created one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises. The war has had a devastating impact on civilians, leading to widespread suffering and a dire need for humanitarian assistance.

Overview of the Conflict

The conflict in Yemen began in earnest in 2014, when the Houthi movement, a group rooted in the Zaydi Shia Muslim community from northern Yemen, took control of Sana’a and much of the country. The situation escalated into a full-scale civil war in 2015 when a Saudi-led coalition intervened militarily in support of the internationally recognized government of Yemen. The conflict has since evolved into a complex, multi-sided war involving various local, regional, and international actors, including the Houthi forces, southern separatists, tribal militias, and terrorist organizations like Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP).

Impact on Civilians

The war has had a catastrophic impact on Yemen’s civilian population. Tens of thousands of people have been killed, and millions have been displaced from their homes. The conflict has also led to widespread food insecurity, with famine-like conditions affecting large parts of the population. The blockade of ports and other infrastructure has further exacerbated shortages of food, medicine, and other essential supplies. The destruction of infrastructure, including homes, schools, and hospitals, has left many people without basic services. Women and children have been particularly affected, facing increased risks of malnutrition, disease, and violence.

Humanitarian Aid and Organizations

In response to the crisis, numerous international and local humanitarian organizations have been working to provide aid to those affected by the conflict. The United Nations, through agencies like the World Food Programme (WFP) and UNICEF, has been leading efforts to deliver food, water, medical supplies, and other forms of assistance to millions of Yemenis. Despite these efforts, access to affected populations remains a significant challenge due to the ongoing fighting, restrictions imposed by the warring parties, and the logistical difficulties of operating in a war-torn country. Humanitarian workers often face significant risks, and aid delivery is frequently hampered by security concerns and bureaucratic obstacles.

Tourism in Yemen

Yemen, a country rich in history and culture, offers a unique experience for adventurous travelers. Its diverse landscapes, from ancient cities to stunning natural attractions, make it a fascinating destination. However, the ongoing conflict and instability in the region have made tourism challenging.

Historical Sites

1. Sana’a: The capital city, Sana’a, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Its Old City, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is known for its distinctive multi-story houses adorned with geometric patterns and intricate stained glass windows.
2. Shibam: Often referred to as the “Manhattan of the Desert,” Shibam is famous for its mud-brick skyscrapers that date back to the 16th century. The city’s unique architecture, surrounded by a fortified wall, is also a UNESCO World Heritage site.
3. Zabid: Another UNESCO World Heritage site, Zabid was once the capital of Yemen and is known for its rich Islamic history. The city features ancient mosques and traditional houses, reflecting its historical significance.
4. Al-Janad Mosque: One of the oldest mosques in Yemen, Al-Janad Mosque dates back to the 7th century. It is an important religious site and a testament to Yemen’s early Islamic heritage.

Natural Attractions

1. Socotra Island: Often described as the “Galápagos of the Indian Ocean,” Socotra is renowned for its unique flora and fauna, including the iconic Dragon’s Blood Tree. The island’s otherworldly landscapes and pristine beaches make it a must-visit for nature enthusiasts.
2. Haraz Mountains: The Haraz Mountains offer breathtaking scenery with terraced fields, ancient villages, and dramatic peaks. The region is ideal for trekking and exploring traditional Yemeni culture.
3. Wadi Hadramaut: This vast valley in eastern Yemen is home to the ancient city of Shibam and offers stunning desert landscapes, traditional villages, and historical sites.
4. Jabal An-Nabi Shu’ayb: The highest peak in Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula, Jabal An-Nabi Shu’ayb provides panoramic views and is a popular destination for hiking and mountaineering.

Challenges for Tourists

Tourism in Yemen faces significant challenges due to the ongoing conflict, political instability, and security concerns. Travelers must consider the risks associated with visiting the country, including:

• Security Risks: The security situation is volatile, with the potential for violence, kidnapping, and terrorism.
• Restricted Access: Many areas, especially conflict zones, are inaccessible to tourists.
• Limited Infrastructure: The conflict has severely impacted Yemen’s infrastructure, including transportation, healthcare, and accommodation facilities.
• Travel Restrictions: Many countries advise against non-essential travel to Yemen, and obtaining visas can be difficult.

Cuisine

Yemeni cuisine is a reflection of the country’s rich history and diverse cultural influences. It is known for its bold flavors, traditional cooking methods, and use of fresh ingredients.

Traditional Dishes

1. Saltah: Considered the national dish of Yemen, Saltah is a stew made from meat, vegetables, and spices, topped with a frothy fenugreek sauce called “hilbah.” It is typically served with flatbread.
2. Mandi: A fragrant rice dish cooked with meat (usually lamb or chicken), Mandi is flavored with a blend of spices and often cooked in an underground pit, giving it a unique smoky flavor.
3. Aseed: A traditional dish made from wheat or sorghum flour, Aseed is a dough-like food served with a variety of sauces, including tomato or meat-based broths.
4. Bint Al-Sahn: A sweet dish made from thin layers of dough, drizzled with honey and sprinkled with nigella seeds. It is a popular dessert, especially during celebrations.

Influences on Yemeni Cuisine

Yemeni cuisine has been influenced by various cultures over the centuries, including:

• Ottoman Influence: The Ottoman Empire introduced spices, coffee, and certain cooking techniques to Yemen, leaving a lasting impact on its cuisine.
• Indian Influence: Due to historical trade routes, Indian spices and dishes have become integral to Yemeni cuisine, particularly in coastal regions.
• African Influence: Yemen’s proximity to Africa has brought African flavors and ingredients, particularly in regions like Socotra.

Popular Food Items

1. Mulawah: A traditional Yemeni flatbread, often used to scoop up stews and sauces.
2. Fahsa: A meat stew made from lamb or beef, cooked with vegetables and spices, and served bubbling hot in a stone bowl.
3. Shakshouka: A popular breakfast dish of poached eggs in a spicy tomato sauce, often served with bread.
4. Jachnun: A Jewish-Yemeni dish, Jachnun is a slow-cooked pastry served with boiled eggs, tomato sauce, and spicy salsa.

Art and Literature in Yemen

Traditional Arts 

Yemen’s traditional arts are deeply rooted in its rich history and culture. The intricate designs found in Yemeni architecture, such as the ornate windows of Sana’a’s buildings and the geometric patterns in mosques, reflect the artistic heritage of the region. Handicrafts like silver jewelry, pottery, and textiles also play a significant role in preserving traditional Yemeni art. These crafts are often adorned with intricate patterns and symbols, reflecting the cultural identity and history of the Yemeni people.

Modern Yemeni Literature 

Modern Yemeni literature has evolved significantly, particularly in the 20th and 21st centuries. Yemeni writers have explored themes such as social justice, political struggles, and the complexities of Yemeni society. Prominent Yemeni authors include Zayd Mutee’ Dammaj, whose novel “The Hostage” is celebrated for its portrayal of traditional Yemeni life and its critique of the country’s socio-political conditions. Other notable authors include Ali Al-Muqri and Nadia Al-Kokabany, who have contributed to modern Yemeni literature by addressing contemporary issues and the challenges faced by Yemenis today.

Influential Yemeni Artists 

Yemen has produced several influential artists who have made significant contributions to the country’s cultural landscape. One of the most renowned Yemeni artists is Adnan Al-Sabri, known for his contemporary paintings that often reflect the social and political turmoil in Yemen. Another influential figure is Hussein Al-Hudhayfi, a visual artist whose work blends traditional Yemeni art with modern techniques. These artists, among others, have played a crucial role in bringing Yemeni art to international attention.

Music and Dance in Yemen

Traditional Music 

Yemeni traditional music is characterized by its use of unique instruments like the qanbus (a type of lute) and the oud. The music often accompanies poetry and is performed during social gatherings and religious ceremonies. The rhythmic and melodic structures of Yemeni music are distinct and have been passed down through generations. The vocal style, known as “zamil,” is particularly important in Yemeni music and is often performed in a call-and-response format.

Dance Forms 

Traditional dance is an integral part of Yemeni culture, with each region having its own distinct styles. The Bara’a dance, for instance, is a traditional sword dance performed by men in the highlands of Yemen. It involves intricate footwork and rhythmic movements that reflect the strength and unity of the community. The Sa’ada dance, performed in the north, is another well-known dance form, characterized by its graceful and flowing movements. These dances are often performed during weddings and festivals, symbolizing joy and celebration.

Modern Music Scene 

The modern music scene in Yemen has seen a fusion of traditional and contemporary influences. Yemeni musicians have incorporated elements of Western music, such as rock, pop, and jazz, into their traditional sounds. Artists like Ahmed Fathi and Arwa have gained popularity both in Yemen and across the Arab world for their ability to blend these styles. Despite the challenges faced by the country, the modern Yemeni music scene continues to thrive, with artists using their music to express their experiences and the realities of life in Yemen.

Yemen in the Global Context

Yemen’s Role in the Middle East 

Yemen holds a strategic position in the Middle East, located at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and bordering the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. This location has made Yemen a focal point for regional powers due to its control over the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, a critical maritime chokepoint for global oil shipments. Historically, Yemen has been a battleground for influence between major Middle Eastern powers, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, due to its proximity and the sectarian dynamics within the region.

Economic and Political Alliances 

Yemen’s economy has traditionally been reliant on agriculture, remittances, and limited oil exports. However, ongoing conflict has severely weakened its economic infrastructure. Politically, Yemen has aligned with various regional and global powers at different times. In recent years, the country has been at the center of a proxy war between Saudi Arabia and Iran, leading to complex alliances and political dynamics. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and the Arab League have been involved in attempts to mediate peace, though with varying degrees of success.

Global Perception 

Globally, Yemen is often perceived through the lens of its humanitarian crisis, with widespread famine, disease, and displacement dominating international headlines. The conflict, which has caused significant civilian casualties and destruction, has drawn international condemnation and concern. Humanitarian organizations and the United Nations have repeatedly highlighted the dire conditions in Yemen, calling for increased international aid and diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Current Issues Facing Yemen 

Yemen faces numerous challenges, including a protracted civil war, humanitarian crises, and economic collapse. The conflict between the internationally recognized government, supported by a Saudi-led coalition, and the Houthi rebels, backed by Iran, has led to widespread devastation. Additionally, the presence of extremist groups like Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and the Islamic State (ISIS) further complicates the security situation. The country is also grappling with food insecurity, widespread poverty, and a collapsing healthcare system, making it one of the most challenging places to live in the world.

Potential for Development 

Despite the severe challenges, Yemen has the potential for development if peace can be achieved. The country’s natural resources, particularly in oil and gas, could be harnessed to rebuild its economy. Additionally, Yemen’s young population represents a significant asset if provided with the right education and employment opportunities. Development of infrastructure, agriculture, and renewable energy sources could also play a role in revitalizing the economy. However, achieving this potential will require substantial international support and a stable political environment.

International Support and Cooperation 

The international community has played a crucial role in providing humanitarian aid to Yemen, with organizations like the United Nations, the Red Cross, and various NGOs working to alleviate the suffering of the Yemeni people. Diplomatic efforts have also been ongoing, with the United Nations leading peace negotiations aimed at ending the conflict. Countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, and France have provided support to the Saudi-led coalition, while also calling for a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Continued international support, both in terms of humanitarian aid and diplomatic pressure, will be essential for Yemen’s recovery and future development.

Conclusion

Yemen is a country of significant historical, cultural, and geopolitical importance, positioned at a critical junction in the Middle East. Its traditional arts, modern literature, and rich musical heritage contribute to its unique cultural identity. However, Yemen faces considerable challenges, including a devastating civil war, humanitarian crises, and economic collapse. Despite these obstacles, Yemen’s strategic location, natural resources, and young population provide potential pathways for development, provided there is sustained international support and a peaceful resolution to the ongoing conflict.

Supporting Yemen is crucial not only for alleviating the immediate humanitarian crisis but also for ensuring regional stability in the Middle East. International efforts to provide aid, facilitate peace negotiations, and support economic recovery are vital to help Yemen overcome its current challenges. A stable and prosperous Yemen would contribute to broader regional peace and security, benefiting both the Middle East and the global community. Therefore, continued global attention and cooperation are essential for Yemen’s future.

FAQs

What is the capital of Yemen? 

The capital of Yemen is Sana’a, which is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. However, due to the ongoing conflict, the city of Aden has served as a temporary capital for the internationally recognized government.

What languages are spoken in Yemen? 

The official language of Yemen is Arabic. Various dialects of Arabic are spoken across the country, with Modern Standard Arabic used in official and formal contexts. Additionally, some communities in Yemen speak indigenous languages such as Soqotri and Mehri.

What are the main religions in Yemen? 

Islam is the predominant religion in Yemen, with the majority of Yemenis adhering to either Sunni Islam (primarily of the Shafi’i school) or Zaydi Shia Islam. There are also small communities of Jews, Christians, and Hindus in Yemen, although these populations have significantly diminished in recent years due to emigration and conflict.

How has the conflict in Yemen affected its economy? 

The conflict in Yemen has had a devastating impact on the country’s economy. The destruction of infrastructure, disruption of trade, and loss of livelihoods have plunged Yemen into economic collapse. The war has exacerbated poverty, unemployment, and food insecurity, leading to widespread famine and a humanitarian crisis that affects millions of Yemenis.

What is Yemen famous for? 

Yemen is famous for its rich history, unique architecture, and cultural heritage. The ancient city of Sana’a, with its distinctive tower houses, and the historic town of Shibam, often referred to as the “Manhattan of the Desert,” are UNESCO World Heritage sites. Yemen is also known for its production of high-quality coffee, believed to be one of the first places where coffee was cultivated and traded. Additionally, the Socotra Archipelago, with its unique biodiversity, is renowned for its otherworldly landscapes and rare species.